A Rhetorical Analysis of Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address”

NOTE: The image of Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg is greatly enlarged from a glass plate original in which the face is a mere speck in a crowd of likely 1000 people and taken from a distance of likely 100 yards. The only other possible photos of Lincoln at Gettysburg are of a man on horseback in a tall top hat thought to be, quite likely, Lincoln. This is the only extant image of him on the speaking platform.

Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.

Lincoln’s rhetorical mastery is exhibited from the beginning of this speech. In just 278 words, he displays most of the typical figures of his style. One important thing about gaining a knowledge of some of the most common figures (that I am highlighting in this series — nowhere near the number of recognized figures*) is one’s ability — through their understanding — of doing RHETORICAL ANALYSIS. One can go beyond mere generalities such as “eloquent,” “powerful,” “evocative,” “grand,” “noble,” etc. and say specific things about rhetorical tendencies in the style of any speaker or writer.

In the first sentence (which, by the way, is a one-sentence paragraph — yes, I know that you had a teacher [or several] who told you “Never write a one-sentence paragraph!” BUT this is one of many “training-wheels rules,” as I call them — meant to “drop away” as one’s style and understanding of language becomes more sophisticated), Lincoln comes directly at the audience with several interesting figures.

First, to turn to the PHONIC SCHEMES and the “sound effects” of Lincoln’s language, “Four score” is a RHYME. Now, while it’s true that the prose writer does not often find uses for rhyme, its extreme rarity does not mean that it never works with prose. “Does might make right?” is another good example. Also, in this first sentence-paragraph, his love of ALLITERATION is shown: the Ss, Fs, Ns, and hard Cs echo. ASSONANCE (the noticeable repetition of vowel sounds) is also heavy with the long open O sounds of “score,” “ago,” “our,” “brought,” “forth,” “upon,” “continent,” “conceived,” “to,” “proposition.” Impressive stuff. We also have heavy CONSONANCE (the noticeable repetition of medial and terminal consonant sounds) is quite evident with the heavy use of the rolling R sounds: “FouR, scoRe, YeaRs, OuR, FatheRs, BRought, FoRth.”

Second, Lincoln’s use of the ARCHAISM of Biblical language and saying “Four score and seven” rather than “eighty-seven” (which he would normally have said in regular conversation) adds nobility and authority to the opening. Of course, 1863 — the year of delivery of the speech — is eighty-seven years after 1776 and the Declaration of Independence.

Third, we also have the use of two very SPECIAL MODES OF ALLITERATION: He begins with alliterations on the letter sounds of “P” and “F” (“Four, fathers, forth, proposition”) — which will be used as “threads of sound” to bind this speech together. He also begins a special arrangement of what I will call “ENVELOPE ALLITERATION” by putting two letter sounds on either side of an alliterative “double” with “continent, new, nation, conceived.” We will see this pattern repeated multiple times in this short speech — enough to prove that Lincoln’s use of it is intentional.

Turning to the second paragraph, it is important to note that the entire speech is only three paragraphs long — AND that it moves with an organizational pattern of Past-Present-Future: “Four score and seven years ago…,” “Now…,” then to what we can and should and must do from here on out. I will look at the following paragraphs in sections.

Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure.

The use of PARALLELISM here can be seen in the repetition of the words “nation,” “conceived,” and “dedicated” in the same order as in paragraph one.

We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live.

Parallel structuring continues here with different varieties of its use. First, the most common “signal” of parallel structuring is the use of ANAPHORA (the repeated opening, literally from the Greek: “first phrase). Continuing from “we are engaged” in the previous sentence, Lincoln’s next two sentences begin: “We are met…” and “We have come… .” We may disregard the initial “Now” at the beginning of paragraph two as a word needed merely for transition from Past to Present and see the “We” clauses in perfect parallel introductory. Here we also see what is perhaps Lincoln’s favorite figure: TRICOLON (Greek: “three parts,” “three clauses” in parallel). He will use it three times in this short speech. And, as far as “series” go, three is likely the smallest number to safely call a “series.” It was old stuff when Julius Caesar was a schoolboy, and his famous “Veni, Vidi, Vici” is a beautiful example (also using nifty alliteration in the Latin — and, by the way, another rhetorical device, ISOCOLON (Greek: “equal parts,” “equal clauses” — the perfect repetition of grammatical structure in parallelism). We also have the parallel effect of DIMINUTIO (Latin this time: “growing smaller”) in that we go from “great civil war,” to “great battlefield,” to “portion of that field.” In effect, this is a “zooming in” (to compare to photography) — going from greatest to least, largest image to smallest.

Going back to PHONIC SCHEMES and SPECIAL PATTERNS, notice the Fs and Ps continuing. Lincoln binds this entire speech together with alliteration on these sounds: “field,” “portion,” “field,” “final,” “place.” We also see the envelope alliteration working again: “portion-field-final-place” AND in “those-who-here-their” (note that, even thought “who” begins with a W, we pronounced it with an opening “H” as with “here”), and, amazingly, also “lives-that-that-live.” It is becoming more and more clear that Lincoln is intentionally using this “wrap-around pattern of alliteration.

AND, with the repetition in one sentence of LIVES and LIVE, we have POLYPTOTON (the use of two or more words from the same root idea in the same sentence — in different parts of speech — here we have noun and verb, but words such as “Life,” Living,” “Lively,” “Lifeless,” etc. would also have achieved this)

It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.

Note the continuation of F and P with “fitting” and “proper.”

But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate — we can not consecrate — we can not hallow — this ground.

WOW! Now if Honest Abe can use a conjunction to start a sentence — so can you. Here is another “training-wheels rule” propounded by untold legions of grade school and English teachers and professors. There is nothing wrong with conjunctions at the beginning of a sentence on occasions: To show contrast BUT…, or to add something important AND…, or to insert some questioning, YET…, or to bring something to a close SO…, etc. I call this (from the Greek: PROSYNDETON (“conjunction at the beginning” — our word “synthesis” comes from the same root: syndeton — in Latin it’s con-junctio “to join with”). Noting that, the sentence is also a TRICOLON and, what is more, includes the use of ASYNDETON (Greek: “no conjunctions”), since there is no “and” before the final, “we cannot hallow this ground.” Yes, another “training-wheels rule” and you may forget your teacher’s advice to “Always use a conjunction before the last item in a series.” X, Y, Z works as well as X, Y, and Z. We understand the series without the need for the final “and.” Here we also have KLIMAX in the series. This is the opposite of DIMINUTIO and the items go from least to greatest: dedication is a human thing (“We’d like to dedicate this song to…”; “consecrate” means to make sacred; “hallow” means to make or revere as holy.

The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract.

Again, the ideas of Life and Death are a big part of this speech. We’ve already seen “gave their lives that that nation might live.” Later we will find another POLYSYNDETON in “that these dead shall not have died in vain.” Also note the continuation of alliteration on Fs and Ps: “far-poor-power.” We also have another “envelope”: “above-poor-power-add”

The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here.

This is a masterpiece of sound effects and the final proof (if any were needed) that Lincoln is intentionally doing this “wrap-around alliteration.” Notice the string of words: “world will little note nor long remember what we.” The first letter sounds to: WWLNNL(r)WW! We see double-Ws wrapped around Ls wrapped around Ns! We also find the parallelism SCHEME of ANTITHESIS (Greek: “against the statement” — a balance of opposites). In effect, Lincoln is saying (although, paradoxically, the opposite has proven to be the case) that: “The world will soon forget what we say here; it can never forget what they did here.” We go from soon forgetting to never forgetting, from saying to doing. A balance of opposites.

It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us

Here we gave the use of the parallel device of PARAPHRASIS (paraphrase) in that Lincoln is urging attention to “the unfinished work” that he repeats as “the great task before us.” But note that this is NOT an exact paraphrase. The addition of the word “great” in the repeat makes the direct parallel of “unfinished work” and “task remaining” importantly different in the paraphrase. This is called INCREMENTAL PARAPHRASE in which some “tidbit” of extra meaning is included in the repeat. AND, not only do we have many more F alliterations: “for, fought, far, for [as well as the “hidden” Fs in “unfinished” and “before”], But we also have more “envelope alliteration”: “they-here-have-thus” and “fought-here-have-far” (those two sort of overlapping). We also see a subtle use of the memorable figure of CHIASMUS (Greek: X (chi)-shape or crossing pattern or repeat in inverse order xy/yx). Lincoln does this in a very complex way. Notice these two CHIASMUS PAIRS: for us…rather / rather for us AND dedicated here / here dedicated. Thus, he gives the impression that, although the parallelism is here, the repetitiousness is mellowed by the paraphrase and chiasmus inversions. This is also an example of the other principle two-part parallelism of BALANCE: two parts on the same theme or making the same essential statement. This is the opposite of antithesis.

— THAT from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion

— THAT we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain

— THAT this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom

— and THAT government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.

The great, eloquent finish to this — almost certainly the most famous American presidential speech — is an amazing melding of several Rhetorical Figures.

The last sentence of the speech is 86 words. With ANAPHORA, signaled by the use of the opening word “THAT.” Also, that for four successive parallel clauses makes this an example of a TETRACOLON (Greek: four parts/clauses in parallel series). Within this structures, each “branch” of the tetracolon has a figure or figures within itself!

1. In the first “branch” we have ANTITHESIS in “we take” vs. “they gave.” (as well as “for-they-the-full” subtly interwoven).

2. In the second branch we have both “envelope alliteration” in “that-here-highly-that.” We also have POLYPTOTON in “dead-died.”

3. In the third branch we have the only TROPE (non-literal figure) in this speech in “birth of freedom.” Nations are not, literally, BORN. We may also now look back to the beginning of the speech and at “a nation CONCEIVED in liberty” to complete the METAPHOR of a nation being conceived and born.

4. And, finally, we have the famous ending that is a TRICOLON within this TETRACOLON: “of the people, by the people, for the people” — which, of course is another example of both ISOCOLON and ASYNDETON. In addition, we have the culmination of all the P and F alliterations: “for-people-people-perish-from.” And, finally we have the opposite of ANAPHORA in that these three parallel phrases all END the same way: “the people.” This is EPIPHORA (the repetition of endings).

RHETORICAL ANALYSIS: So, in trying to rhetorically analyze Lincoln’s style — using our new vocabulary of rhetorical figures — we may say that:

• he loves alliteration, even using it in distinctive patterns;
• he loves the figure of the tricolon, exemplified by his use of three of them in this short speech;
• his tendency seems to be very literal, direct language without heavy use of tropes;
• his knowledge and use of parallel figures and of sound effects to make his prose more poetical is distinctive and masterful.

*NOTE: I mention above and elsewhere that these figures I’m covering are a small number of the total identified and named by the ancient Greeks and Romans. The most exhaustive study of figures is done by the German, Heinrich Lausberg, in A DICTIONARY OF LITERARY RHETORIC. Lausberg identifies over 900 figures! For those interested in delving more deeply into the types and uses of Rhetorical Figures, I highly recommend Richard Lanham’s (emeritus professor of Rhetoric, UCLA) and his A HANDLIST OF RHETORICAL TERMS.